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Šńńing€of€the€recent€literature€does€not€provide€theĻhoped„for€clarifi‚cation€of€the€catecholamineĻhypotheses,€nor€does€compel‚ling€evidenceϐemerge€for€other€biological€differences€that€mayĻcharacterize€the€brains€of€patients€with€mentalĻdiseasešš€(ņņThe€New€Harvard€Guide€to€Psy‚chiatryóó,Š |€ ŠHarvard€Univ.€Press,€p.€148).€€In€1992€a€panelĻof€experts€assembled€by€the€U.S.€CongressĻOffice€of€Technology€Assessment€concluded:Ļš šMany€questions€remain€about€the€biology€ofĻmental€disorders.€€In€fact,€re‚search€has€yet€toĻidentify€specific€biological€causes€for€any€ofĻthese€disor‚ders.€€...€€Mental€disorders€are€classiƒ¼ńń¼ńńfied€on€the€basis€of€symptoms€because€there€areĻas€yet€no€biological€markers€or€laboratory€testsĻfor€themšš€(ņņThe€Biology€of€Mental€Disor‚dersóó,Š ž  ŠU.S.€Gov't€Printing€Office,€1992,€pp.€13„14,€46„¼ńń¼ńń47).€€In€his€book€ņņThe€Essential€Guide€to€PsychiƒŠ €„  ŠńńŠ €„  Šńńatric€Drugsóó,€Columbia€University€psychiatryŠ BF Šprofessor€Jack€M.€Gorman,€M.D.,€said€š šWeĻreally€do€not€know€what€causes€any€psychi‚atricĻillnessšš€(St.€Martin's€Press,€1990,€p.€316).€€InĻhis€book€ņņThe€New€Psychiatryóó€another€ColumbiaŠ DH ŠUniversity€psychiatry€professor,€Jerrold€S.ĻMaxmen,€M.D.,€said€š šIt€is€generally€unrecogƒ¼ńń¼ńńnized€that€psychiatrists€are€the€ņņonlyóó€medicalŠ †Š Šspecialists€who€treat€disor‚ders€that,€by€definition,Ļhave€no€definitively€known€causes€or€cures.€...ĻA€diagno‚sis€should€indicate€the€cause€of€a€mentalĻdisor‚der,€but€as€discussed€later,€since€the€etioloƒ¼ńń¼ńńgies€of€most€mental€disorders€are€unknown,Ļcurrent€diagnostic€systems€can't€reflect€themššĻ(Mentor,€1985,€pp.€19€&€36€„€emphasis€inĻoriginal).€€In€his€book€ņņToxic€Psychia‚tryóó,€psychiaƒŠ ˆŒ" ŠńńŠ ˆŒ" Šńńtrist€Peter€Breg‚gin,€M.D.,€said€š šthere€is€noĻevidence€that€any€of€the€com‚mon€psycho‚logicalĻor€psychiatric€disorders€have€a€genetic€or€biologƒ¼ńń¼ńńical€componentšš€(St.€Martin's€Press,€1991,€p.Ļ291).Ģą ` ąIt€is€sometimes€argued€that€psychiatricĻdrugs€š šcuringšš€(stopping)€the€thinking,€emo‚tions,Ļor€behavior€that€is€called€mental€illness€provesĻthe€existence€of€biological€causes€of€mentalĻillness.€€This€argument€is€easily€refuted:€SupposeĻsomeone€was€playing€the€piano€and€you€didn'tĻlike€him€doing€that.€€Suppose€you€forced€orŠ Š%Ž". Špersuaded€him€to€take€a€drug€that€disabled€himĻso€severely€that€he€couldn't€play€the€piano€anyƒ¼ńń¼ńńmore.€€Would€this€prove€his€piano€playing€wasĻcaused€by€a€biological€abnormality€that€wasĻcured€by€the€drug?€€As€senseless€as€this€arguƒ¼ńń¼ńńment€is,€it€is€often€made.€€Most€if€not€all€psychiƒ¼ńń¼ńńatric€drugs€are€neurotoxic,€producing€a€greater€orĻlesser€degree€of€generalized€neurologi‚cal€disabiliƒ¼ńń¼ńńty.€€So€they€ņņdoóó€stop€disliked€behavior€and€mayŠ ü Šmentally€disable€a€person€enough€he€can€noĻlonger€feel€angry€or€unhappy€or€š šdepressedšš.€ĻBut€calling€this€a€š šcurešš€is€absurd.€€Extrapolatƒ¼ńń¼ńńing€from€this€that€the€drug€must€have€cured€anĻunderlying€biological€abnormality€that€wasĻcausing€the€disliked€emotions€or€behavior€isĻequally€absurd.Ģą ` ąWhen€confronted€with€†the€†lack€of€eviƒ¼ńń¼ńńdence€for€their€belief€in€mental€illness€as€aĻbiological€entity,€some€defenders€of€the€conceptĻof€mental€illness€will€assert€that€mental€illnessĻcan€exist€and€can€be€defined€as€a€š šdiseaseššĻņņwithoutóó€there€being€a€biological€abnormalityŠ ¾Ā Šcausing€it.€€The€idea€of€mental€illness€as€aϐnonbiological€entity€requires€a€more€lengthyĻrefuta‚tion€than€the€biological€argument.Ģą ` ąPeople€are€thought€of€as€mentally€ill€onlyĻwhen€their€thinking,€emotions,€or€behavior€isĻcontrary€to€what€is€considered€acceptable,€that€is,Ļwhen€others€(or€the€so„called€patients€themselves)Ļdislike€something€about€them.€€One€way€to€showĻthe€absurdity€of€calling€something€an€illness€notĻbecause€it€is€caused€by€a€biological€abnormalityĻbut€only€because€we€dislike€it€or€disapprove€of€itĻis€to€look€at€how€values€differ€from€one€cultureĻto€anoth‚er€and€how€values€change€over€time.Ģą ` ąIn€his€book€ņņThe€Psychol‚ogy€of€Self„Š @D# ŠńńŠ @D# ŠńńEsteemóó,€Nathaniel€Branden,€Ph.D.,€a€psycholoƒŠ $ ŠńńŠ $ Šńńgist,€wrote:€š šOne€of€the€prime€tasks€of€theĻscience€of€psy‚chology€is€to€provide€definitions€ofĻmental€health€and€men‚tal€illness.€...†But€there€isĻno€general€agreement€among€psychologists€andĻpsychiatrists€about€the€nature€of€mental€health€orĻmental€illnessš"šno€generally€accepted€definitions,Ļno€basic€standard€by€which€to€gauge€one€psychoƒ¼ńń¼ńńlogi‚cal€state€or€other.€€Many€writers€declare€thatĻno€objective€definitions€and€standards€can€beĻestab‚lishedš"šthat€a€basic,€uni‚ver‚sally€applicableŠ „%ˆ". Šcon‚cept€of€mental€health€is€impossible.€€TheyĻassert€that,€since€behavior€which€is€regarded€asĻhealthy€or€normal€in€one€culture€may€be€regardƒ¼ńń¼ńńed€as€neurotic€or€aberrated€in€another,€all€criteriaĻare€a€matter€of€`cultural€bias.'€€The€theorists€whoĻmaintain€this€position€usually€insist€that€theĻclosest€one€can€come€to€a€definition€of€mentalĻhealth€is:€conformity€to€cultural€norms.€€Thus,Ļthey€declare€that€a€man€is€psychologically€healthyĻto€the€extent€that€he€is€`well-adjusted'€to€hisĻculture.€...€The€obvious€questions€that€such€aĻdefinition€raises,€are:€What€if€the€values€andĻnorms€of€a€given€society€are€ņņirrational?óó€€CanŠ ü  Šmental€health€consist€of€being€well-adjusted€toĻthe€irrational?€€What€about€Nazi€Germany,€forĻinstance?€€Is€a€cheerful€servant€of€the€NaziĻstateš"šwho€feels€serenely€and€happily€at€home€inĻhis€social€environmentš"šan€exponent€of€mentalĻhealth?€šš(Bantam€Books,€1969,€pp.€95-96,€emƒ¼ńń¼ńńpha‚sis€in€original).€€Dr.€Branden€is€doing€severalĻthings€here:€First,€he€is€confusing€morali‚ty€andĻrationality,€saying€that€respect€for€human€rightsĻis€rational€when€in€fact€it€is€not€a€question€ofĻrationality€but€rather€of€morality.€€So€psychoƒ¼ńń¼ńńlogically€and€emotionally€locked€into€and€blindedĻby€his€values€is€he€that€Dr.€Branden€is€evidentlyĻincapable€of€seeing€the€difference.€€Additionally,ĻDr.€Branden€is€stating€some€of€his€values.ϐAmong€these€values€are:€Respect€for€humanĻrights€is€good;€violation€of€human€rights€(likeĻNaziism)€is€bad.€€And€he€is€saying:€ViolatingĻthese€values€is€š širrationalityšš€or€mental€illness.€ĻAlthough€their€practitioners€won't€admit€it€andĻoften€are€not€even€aware€of€it,€psychiatry€andĻš šclinicalšš€psychology€in€their€very€essence€areĻabout€values†š"š†values€concealed€under€a€veneer€ofĻlanguage€that€makes€it€sound€like€they€are€notĻfurthering€values€but€promoting€š šhealthšš.€€TheĻanswer€to€the€question€Dr.€Branden€poses€is:€AĻperson€living€in€Nazi€Germany€and€well„adjustedĻto€it€ņņwasóó€š šmentally€healthyšš€judged€by€the€valuesŠ ž ( Šof€his€own€society.€€Judged€by€the€values€of€aĻsociety€which€respects€human€rights€he€was€asĻsick€(metaphorically€speaking)€as€the€rest€of€hisĻculture.€€A€person€like€myself€however€says€thatĻsuch€a€person€is€ņņmorallyóó€š šsickšš€and€recog‚nizesŠ Ą$Ä!- Šthat€the€word€ņņsickóó€has€not€its€literal€but€a€metaƒŠ ‚%†". ŠńńŠ ‚%†". Šńńphorical€meaning.€€To€a€person€like€Dr.€BrandenĻwho€believes€in€the€myth€of€mental€illness,€suchĻa€person€is€literally€sick€and€needs€a€ņņdoctoróó.€€TheŠ |€ Šdifference€is€that€a€person€like€myself€is€recogƒ¼ńń¼ńńnizing€my€values€for€what€they€are:€morality.€ĻTypically,€the€believer€in€mental€illness,€such€asĻDr.€Branden€in€this€quoted€passage,€has€the€sameĻvalues€as€I€do€but€is€confusing€them€with€health.Ģą ` ąOne€of€the€most€telling€examples€isĻhomosexuality,€which€was€officially€defined€as€aĻmental€disease€by€the€American€PsychiatricĻAssociation€until€1973€but€hasn't€been€sinceĻthen.€€Homosexuality€was€defined€as€a€mentalĻdisorder€on€page€44€of€the€American€PsychiatricĻAssociation's€standard€reference€book,€ņņDSM-II:Š ~ ‚  ŠDiagnostic€and€Statistical€Manual€of€MentalĻDisordersóó€(the€2nd€Edition),€published€in€1968.€Š   ŠIn€that€book,€š šHomosexualityšš€is€categorized€asĻone€of€the€š šSexual€deviationsšš€on€page€44.€€InĻ1973€the€American€Psychiatric€Association€votedĻto€remove€homosexuality€from€it's€official€diagƒ¼ńń¼ńńnostic€categories€of€mental€illness.€€(See€š šAnĻInstant€Curešš,€ņņTimeóó€magazine,€April€1,€1974,€p.Š ‚† Š45).€€So€when€the€third€edition€of€this€book€wasĻpublished€in€1980€it€said€š šhomosexuality€itself€isĻnot€considered€a€mental€disorderšš€(p.€282).€€TheĻ1987€edition€of€ņņThe€Merck€Manual€of€DiagnosisŠ „ˆ Šand€Therapyóó€states:€š šThe€American€PsychiatricŠ FJ ŠAssociation€no€longer€considers€homosexuality€aĻpsychiatric€diseasešš€(p.€1495).€€If€mental€illnessĻwas€really€an€illness€in€the€same€sense€thatĻphysical€illnesses€are€illnesses,€the€idea€of€deletƒ¼ńń¼ńńing€homosexuality€or€anything€else€from€theĻcategories€of€illness€by€having€a€vote€would€beĻas€absurd€as€a€group€of€physicians€voting€toĻdelete€cancer€or€measles€from€the€concept€ofĻdisease.€€But€mental€illness€ņņisn'tóó€š šan€illness€likeŠ  $ Šany€other€illness.šš€€Unlike€physical€diseaseĻwhere€there€are€physical€facts€to€deal€with,Ļmental€š šillnessšš€is€entirely€a€question€of€values,Ļof€right€and€wrong,€of€appropriate€versus€inapƒ¼ńń¼ńńpropriate.€€At€one€time€homosexuality€seemed€soĻweird€and€hard€to€understand€it€was€necessary€toĻinvoke€the€concept€of€mental€disease€or€mentalĻillness€to€explain€it.€€After€homosexu‚als€made€aĻbig€enough€spectacle€of€themselves€and€showedĻtheir€š šstrength€in€numbersšš€and€success‚fullyŠ Š%Ž". Šdemanded€at€least€a€small€measure€of€socialĻacceptance,€it€was€no€longer€necessary€and€noĻlonger€seemed€appropriate€to€explain€homosexuƒ¼ńń¼ńńality€as€a€dis‚ease.Ģą ` ąA€cross„cultural€example€is€suicide.€€InĻmany€countries,€such€as€the€United€States€andĻGreat€Britain,€a€person€who€commits€suicide€orĻattempts€to€do€so€or€even€thinks€about€it€seriousƒ¼ńń¼ńńly€is€considered€mentally€ill.€€However,€this€hasĻnot€always€been€true€throughout€human€history,Ļnor€is€it€true€today€in€all€cultures€around€theĻworld.€€In€his€book€ņņWhy€Suicide?óó,€psychologistŠ < @  ŠEustace€Chesser€points€out€that€š šNeither€Hinduƒ¼ńń¼ńńism€nor€Buddhism€have€any€intrinsic€objectionsĻto€suicide€and€in€some€forms€of€Buddhism€self„¼ńń¼ńńincineration€is€believed€to€confer€special€merit.šš€ĻHe€also€points€out€that€š šThe€Celts€scorned€toĻwait€for€old€age€and€enfeeblement.€€They€beƒ¼ńń¼ńńlieved€that€those€who€committed€suicide€beforeĻtheir€powers€waned€went€to€heaven,€and€thoseĻwho€died€of€sickness€or€became€senile€went€toĻhellš"šan€inter‚esting€reversal€of€Christian€docƒ¼ńń¼ńńtrinešš€(Arrow€Books€Ltd.,€London,€England,Ļ1968,€p.€121„122).€€In€his€book€ņņFighting€DepresƒŠ >B ŠńńŠ >B Šńńsionóó,€psychia‚trist€Harvey€M.€Ross,€M.D.,€pointsŠ  Šout€that€š šSome€cultures€expect€the€wife€to€throwĻherself€on€her€husband's€funeral€pyrešš€(Larchƒ¼ńń¼ńńmont€Books,€1975,€p.€20).€€Probably€the€bestĻknown€example€of€a€society€where€suicide€isĻsocially€acceptable€is€Japan.€€Rather€than€thinkƒ¼ńń¼ńńing€of€suicide€or€š šhara-kirišš€as€the€Japanese€callĻit€as€almost€always€caused€by€a€mental€disease€orĻillness,€the€Japanese€in€some€circum‚stanc‚esĻconsider€suicide€the€normal,€socially€accept‚ableĻthing€to€do,€such€as€when€one€š šloses€facešš€or€isĻhumiliat‚ed€by€some€sort€of€failure.€€AnotherĻexample€showing€suicide€is€considered€normal,Ļnot€crazy,€in€Japanese€eyes€is€the€kami‚kaze€pilotsĻJapan€used€against€the€U.S.€Navy€in€World€WarĻII.€€They€were€given€enough€fuel€for€a€one-wayĻtrip,€a€suicide€mission,€to€where€the€attackingĻU.S.€Navy€forces€were€located€and€deliberatelyĻcrashed€their€airplanes€into€the€enemy€ships.€ĻThere€has€never€been€an€American€kamikazeĻpilot,€at€least,€none€officially€sponsored€by€theĻUnited€States€government.€€The€reason€for€this€isĻdifferent€attitudes€about€suicide€in€Japan€andŠ ‚%†". ŠAmerica.€€Could€suicide€be€commit‚ted€only€byĻpeople€with€psychiatric€ill‚ness‚es€in€America€andĻyet€be€performed€by€normal€per‚sons€in€Japan?€ĻOr€is€acceptance€of€suicide€in€Japan€a€failure€orĻrefusal€to€recog‚nize€the€pres‚ence€of€psychologicalĻabnormalities€which€necessarily€must€be€presentĻfor€a€person€to€voluntarily€end€his€or€her€ownĻlife?€€Were€the€kamikaze€pilots€mentally€ill,€orĻdid€they€and€the€society€they€come€from€simplyĻhave€different€values€than€we€do?€€Even€inĻAmerica,€aren't€virtually€suicidal€acts€done€forĻthe€sake€of€one's€fellow€soldiers€or€for€one'sĻcountry€during€wartime€thought€of€not€as€insanityĻbut€as€bravery?€€Why€do€we€think€of€such€perƒ¼ńń¼ńńsons€as€heros€rather€than€lunatics?€€It€seems€weĻcondemn€(or€š šdiagnosešš)€suicidal€people€as€crazyĻor€mentally€ill€only€when€they€end€their€ownĻlives€for€selfish€reasons€(the€š šI€can't€take€it€anyĻmorešš€kind€of€reasons)€rather€than€for€the€benefitĻof€other€people.€€The€real€issue€seems€to€beĻselfishness€rather€than€suicide.Ģą ` ąWhat€these€examples€show€is€that€š šmenƒ¼ńń¼ńńtal€illnessšš€is€simply€deviance€from€what€peopleĻwant€or€expect€in€any€particular€society.€ņņš šMen‚talŠ <@ Šillnessšš€is€anything€in€human€mentality€great‚lyĻdisliked€by€the€person€describing€itóó.Š ¾Ā Šą ` ąThe€situation€was€aptly€summed€up€in€anĻarticle€in€the€November€1986€ņņOmnióó€magazine:Š @D Šš šDisorders€come€and€go.€€Even€Sigmund€Freud'sĻconcept€of€neurosis€was€dropped€in€the€originalŠ ĀĘ ŠņņDSM„IIIóó€(1980).€€And€in€1973€APA€[AmericanŠ ‚† ŠPsychiat‚ric€Association]€trustees€voted€to€wipeĻout€almost€all€references€to€homosexuali‚ty€as€aĻdisorder.€€Before€the€vote,€being€gay€was€considƒ¼ńń¼ńńered€a€psychiatric€problem.€€After€the€vote€theĻdisorder€was€relegated€to€psychiatry's€attic.€€`It'sĻa€matter€of€fashion,'€says€Dr.€John€Spiegel€ofĻBrandeis€University,€who€was€president€of€theĻAPA€in€1973,€when€the€debate€over€homo‚sexualƒ¼ńń¼ńńity€flared.€€`And€fashions€keep€changing'šš€(p.Ļ30).Ģą ` ąWhat€is€wrong€with€this€approach€isĻdescribing€people€as€having€a€psychiatric€š šdisƒ¼ńń¼ńńeasešš€or€š šillnessšš€only€because€he€or€she€doesn'tĻmatch€up€with€a€supposed€diagnostician's€or€withĻother€people's€idea€of€how€a€person€š šshouldšš€beĻin€standards€of€dress,€behavior,€thinking,€orŠ „%ˆ". Šopinion.€€When€it€involves€violating€the€rights€ofĻothers,€nonconformity€with€social€norms€orĻvalues€must€be€curbed€or€stopped€with€variousĻmeasures,€criminal€law€being€one€exam‚ple.€€ButĻcalling€nonconformity€or€disliked€behavior€aĻš šdiseasešš€or€assuming€it€must€be€caused€by€aĻdisease€only€because€it€is€unaccept‚able€accord‚ingĻto€currently€prevail‚ing€values€makes€no€sense.€ĻWhat€causes€us€to€do€this€is€not€knowing€the€ņņrealóóŠ ü Šreasons€for€the€thinking,€emo‚tions,€or€behaviorĻwe€dislike.€€When€we€don't€understand€the€realĻreasons,€we€create€myths€to€provide€an€explanaƒ¼ńń¼ńńtion.€€In€prior€centuries€people€used€myths€ofĻevil€spirit€or€demon€possession€to€explain€unacƒ¼ńń¼ńńceptable€thinking€or€behav‚ior.€€Today€most€of€usĻinstead€believe€in€the€myth€of€mental€illness.€ĻBelieving€in€mythologi‚cal€entities€such€as€evilĻspirits€or€mental€illnesses€gives€an€illusion€ofĻunderstand‚ing,€and€believing€a€myth€is€moreĻcom‚ńń¼ńńfort‚able€than€acknowledging€ignorance.Ģą ` ąCalling€disapproved€thinking,€emotions,Ļor€behav‚ior€a€mental€illness€might€be€excusableĻif€mental€illness€was€a€useful€myth,€but€it€isn't.€ĻRather€than€helping€us€deal€with€troubled€orĻtrouble‚some€persons,€the€myth€of€mental€illnessĻdis‚tracts€us€from€the€real€problems€that€need€toĻbe€faced.€€Rather€than€being€caused€by€a€š šchemiƒ¼ńń¼ńńcal€imbal‚ancešš€or€other€biological€problem,€theĻnoncon‚formity,€misbehavior,€and€emotionalĻreactions€we€call€mental€illness€are€the€result€ofĻdifficulties€people€have€getting€their€needs€metĻand€the€behavior€some€people€have€ņņlearnedóóŠ >B Šduring€their€lifetimes.€€The€solutions€are€teachingĻpeople€how€to€get€their€needs€met,€how€to€beƒ¼ńń¼ńńhave,€and€using€whatever€powers€of€enforce‚mentĻare€needed€to€force€people€to€re‚spect€the€rightsĻof€others.€€These€are€the€tasks€of€education€andĻlaw€enforce‚ment,€not€medicine€or€therapy.ĢńńŌ% € ŌńńĢĢņņņņTHE€AUTHOR,€Lawrence€Stevens,€is€a€lawyer€whose€practiceŠ !( Šhas€included€representing€psychiatric€š špatientsšš.€€He€hasĻpublished€a€series€of€pamphlets€about€various€aspects€ofĻpsychiatry,€including€psychiatric€drugs,€electroshock,€andĻpsychotherapy.€€His€pamphlets€are€not€copyrighted.€€You€areĻinvited€to€make€copies€for€distribution€to€those€you€think€willĻbenefit.€€They€are€published€on€the€Internet€at€€http://†¼www.antipsychiatry.org.ńńŌ% € ŌńńóóóóŠ  `%d"/ ŠŃ g Ńņ ņņņą@<ąDoes€MentalˆŠ \ Šą@ ąIllness€Exist?ó óóóˆŠ æc ŠĢą@ąby€Lawrence€Stevens,€J.D.ˆĢĢAll€diagnosis€and€treatment€in€psychiatry,€espeƒ¼ńń¼ńńcially€biological€psychiatry,€presupposes€theĻńńŌ% € Ōńńexistence€of€something€called€mental€illness,€alsoĻknown€as€mental€disease€or€mental€disorder.€ĻWhat€is€meant€by€ņņdiseaseóó,€ņņillnessóó,€or€ņņdisorder?óó€Š b   ŠIn€a€semantic€€sense€ņņ€diseaseóó€€means€€simply€Š $ Č  Šņņdis„easeóó,€the€opposite€of€ease.€€But€by€disease€weŠ ę Š  Šdon't€mean€ņņanythingóó€that€causes€a€lack€of€ease,Š Ø L  Šsince€this€definition€would€mean€losing€one's€jobĻor€a€war€or€economic€recession€or€an€argumentĻwith€one's€spouse€qualifies€as€š šdiseasešš.€€In€hisĻbook€ņņIs€Alcoholism€Hereditary?óó€psychiatristŠ ŖN  ŠDonald€W.€Goodwin,€M.D.,€discuss‚es€the€definiƒ¼ńń¼ńńtion€of€disease€and€concludes€š šDis‚eases€areĻsomething€people€see€doctors€for.€...€PhysiciansĻare€consulted€about€the€problem€of€alcoholismĻand€therefore€alcoholism€becomes,€by€this€definiƒ¼ńń¼ńńtion,€a€diseasešš€(Ballantine€Books,€1988,€p.€61).€ĻAccepting€this€definition,€if€for€some€reasonĻpeople€consulted€physicians€about€how€to€get€theĻeconomy€out€of€recession€or€how€to€solve€aĻdisagreement€with€one's€mate€or€a€bor‚deringĻnation,€these€problems€would€also€qualify€asĻņņdiseaseóó.€€But€clearly€this€is€not€what€is€meant€byŠ ¬P Šš šdiseasešš.€€In€his€discus‚sion€of€the€definition€ofĻdisease,€Dr.€Goodwin€acknowledges€there€is€š šaĻnarrow€definition€of€disease€that€requires€theĻpresence€of€a€biological€abnormalityšš€(ibid).€€InĻthis€pamphlet€I€will€show€that€there€are€noĻbiological€abnormalities€respon‚sible€for€so„calledĻmental€illness,€mental€disease,€or€mental€disorƒ¼ńń¼ńńder,€and€that€therefore€ņņmental€illness€has€noŠ ®R$ Šbiological€existenceóó.€€Perhaps€more€importantly,Š p% Šhowever,€I€will€show€that€mental€illness€also€hasĻno€non„biological€exis‚tence†š"š†except€in€the€senseĻthat€the€term€is€used€to€indicate€ņņdisapprovalóó€ofŠ ² V( Šsome€aspect€of€a€person's€mentality.Ģą ` ąThe€idea€of€mental€illness€as€a€biologicalĻentity€is€easy€to€refute.€€In€1988,€Seymour€S.ĻKety,€M.D.,€Professor€Emeritus€of€NeuroscienceĻin€Psychiatry,€and€Steven€Matthysse,€Ph.D.,ĻAssociate€Professor€€of€€Psychobiology,€€both€€of